The Development Of Victimology Criminology Essay

The Development Of Victimology Criminology Essay This paper will explain and evaluate the development of victimology as a field of study, focusing on victimology within England and Wales. Firstly, it will define the concept of victimology, and the victim before explaining the origins of the study. The development of victimology will then be evaluated, focusing firstly on the concept of the victim and then upon more general issues. This paper will discuss the impact of these issues on the success of victimologys development, but will conclude by acknowledging the potential strength of the continual development of victimology as a field of study. As a concept, victimology is difficult to universally define, due to the fact that different people define victimology in varying ways. At best, one can only forward a broad definition of victimology and acknowledge that other definitions do exist. As a recently developed sub-discipline of criminology victimology focuses equally on victims as it does on crime (Dignan, 2005:31). Within victimology, the victims experience, events leading to victimisations, victimisations themselves and the response of society and organisations to victimisations are all studied (Dussich, 2006:116). To clarify, victimology studies events where persons, institutions or communities are significantly injured or damaged (Dussich, 2006:116). In an academic sense, the term victimology is translated as a system of knowledge of victims (Dussich, 2006 : 116). To add, according to the Crown Prosecution Service (2001), a victim is defined as a person who has complained of the commission of an offence against themse lves or their property; this can include bereaved relatives, alongside parents or careers and small businesses. Kearon Godfrey (2007) explain that in the past, victims have been central to the processes of justice. There would have been little recorded crime before the end of the 19th century if it wasnt for the activity of victims. To illustrate, in Anglo-Saxon times, courts dealt with complaints brought directly by victims against the perpetrator which often resulted in financial compensation paid from the perpetrator to the victim (KearonGodrey,2007:6-7). The concept of the victim will be discussed in more detail later in this paper. Preceding this will be the overview of the origins of victimology, exploring in particular three criminological categories that underline victimology. It is often said that the origin of victimology lies in the hands of Mendelsohn and Von Hendig (Walklate:2007b:15). Von Hendig describes victims as having crime provocative functions, in other words, having proneness to crime (Hendig,1967:450), but Mendelsohn describes victims in terms of their culpability or responsibility for their victimisation (Marsh,2004:105). Mendelsohn and Von Hendig together explore criminological and philosophical aspects in relation to crime and victims, and despite their differences, both theorists have influenced victimology and are linked specifically to positivist victimology (Marsh, 2004:104). The positivist position links with the theories that underline victimology. Goodey (2005) claims that embedded in victimology are three categories of victimology that are based in criminology, in which she attributes to Walklate and Mawby. Firstly, there is the positivist position of which proposes the scientific nature of victimology; it defines victimisation according to the criminal law and is twinned with the idea of blaming the victim, or victim culpability (Goodey, 2005:93). Secondly, there exists the radical position which concentrates more on human rights (particularly the rights of victims) than on the scientific nature of victimology (Goodey, 2005 :93). This category emphasises all aspects of victimisation, even that which is outside the law, whilst examining the role of the state alongside the law in producing victimisation (Walklate,2007b:117). This position can be considered as having influenced the victims movement. Thirdly, there is the critical position which combines the two positions above which looks at the experiences of individual victim s and how the state and societys powers influence them (Goodey, 2005: 93). The critical position is concerned with the invisible victims and acts as well as the visible, and holds that policy should be influenced by both (Walklate, 2007b:119). The main focus of the critical position is on rights, citizenship and the state; these are three important policy oriented concepts which are linked to other versions of victimology (Walklate, 2007b :120). The underlying theories discussed are important as a base to victimology. This next section will go further and provide a explanation of the development of victimology as a field of study. Dignan (2005) describes the significance of the visibility of victims and argues that this is what led to the development of victimology. To explain, this visibility could be considered as a focus on victims rather than offenders. Dignan (2005) claims that in the 1950s the interest of victims was supported by penal reformers, and it was the first time in which penal reformers considered crime as not just a violation of legal obligations but as a violation of the rights of individual victims. Penal reformers had a deep impact in policy and in the development of victimology, for example, Margery Fry was key in promoting the improvement of services for victims (Dignan, 2005:14). Also, the mass media was thought to increase the visibility of victims, focusing strongly on victims and the families of victims; a main illustration being the emphasis that was put on the impact of the Moors Murders on the families of those victims. In addition, the publications of incidents and extensive media coverage focused on the impact of the crime upon the victim (Dignan, 2005: 14). A further increase to victim visibility stemmed from the late 60s in that a recognition had been growing of particular vulnerable groups, specifically domestically abused women, sexually abused women and abused children (Dignan, 2005 :15). With the growth of the feminist movement came an emphasis on women and children as victims of interpersonal crime (Goodey, 2005:102). This brought on broader concerns in regards to the handling of victims (Dignan, 2005: 15). Furthermore, the introduction and growth of victimisation surveys could be considered paramount to the increase of visibility of victims and so the development of victimology. These surveys increased knowledge about the nature and extent of criminal victimisation (Dignan, 2005:16). The surveys arose in the late 1960s and were initially designed to discover more about the dark figure of crime. The surveys were based on individual interviews, with figures about the extent of victims injuries and financial loss, alongside the emotional impact of crime (Maguire 1988:7 8). The Crime Survey for England and Wales, which was formerly known as the British Crime Survey, is an institution which is part of the official crime date (Green, 2007:105). In 1982, the first Crime Survey for England and Wales was conducted, with two following in1984 and 1988 (Maung 1995:1). It is important to point out that previous research in surveys focused on delinquency rather than on victimisation (Maung, 1995:2) . Evidently, the focus of the victim over the offender had increased influencing the development of victimology. One can argue that the introduction of victimisation surveys had an indirect impact on criminological theory, policy, and societys view on crime (MaguirePointing,1988:8). In addition, other forms centred on the victims were emerging alongside victimisation surveys. Following the Victim Movement in the U.S, in the 1970s, the UK courts began to offer retribution for the victims, making them a more central focus in the courts (Maguire, 1988:3). The UK victims movement, largely run by the National Association of Victim Support Schemes, focused on the services to the victims rather than on the rights of victims (Maguire, 1988:3). These services were seen as positive for many people as the objective of the services was to achieve better links between local communities (Maguire, 1988:4), and also they grew fast, with a significant increase in the amount in just five years (Maguire, 1988:21). One of the reasons for the emergence of the Victim Support schemes arguably was the rising crime rate, and with it was the rejection of the rehabilitative criminal justice model in regards to dealing with the offender (Goodey 2005:102). In relation to this rejection, the criminal justice system in England and Wales has introduced the restorative justice model in recent years (Dignan, 2005:108). With restorative justice, victims are central in the justice process, which operates from a belief one can get justice through problem solving and reparation rather than from punitive solutions (Conflicts Solution Centre, 2009). To illustrate, the compensation order of 1972 and the community service order of 1988 were both set in place to provide reparations to the community, but more specifically to the victim (Dignan, 2005:108). The restorative justice model therefore demonstrates the centrality of the victim within the criminal justice system, and through the emphasis of the victim and their compensation, the model links favourably with the study of victimology. Despite the seemingly unstoppable nature of victimology, there are several weaknesses deeply rooted in the study itself. In particular, the concept of the victim can appear to have a significant effect on the development of victimology. Firstly, the differing definitions of the victim can be considered to affect the development of victimology, for example, through reducing the applicability of results derived through research methods . To demonstrate, a survey designed to gain a greater understanding of victimisation which fails to clarify what constitutes being a victim, will have inutile findings as the results would not reflect a collective, consistent understanding. As an illustration of varying definitions, the polices understanding of the concept victim is narrow and in fitting with crime-recording practices, but for others in which these practices do not directly affect, the meaning of the concept may vary indefinitely(Walklate, 2007:38). In contrast, perhaps it is not realistic to attempt to achieve a universal definition of the victim, due to the fact that it is a concept and therefore cannot escape subjectivity. One might say that in terms of this issue, the most desirable option would be to modify research methods in a way that somehow circumvents the problem regarding varying definitions. However, if this occurred, victimology would still be founded on a problematic concept and the possibility of this may be perceived as implausible. Although, it could be argued that the lack of universality may be resolved with the idea of the ideal victim, as the concept seems to provide universal criteria in regards to the victim and the perception of the victim. However, this is not the case as this term deals with a desired definition of who a victim is deemed to be, not what a victim actually is. Generally, the ideal victim is a victim who is weak, of an interpersonal crime, and cant be blamed for being in the place in which the offence occurred; the offender is physically dominant and unknown to the victim (Whyte, 2007a:447). Christine describes an ideal victim as being:- a person or category of individuals who-when hit by crime-most readily are given the complete and legitimate status of being a victim (Christine cited in Walklate, 2005:99) It is said that those people who meet the ideal victim criteria are typically the victims that attract media attention which influences public attention and their sympathy (Whyte, 2007a:447). Therefore, ideal victims are more likely to receive a response and support from the public which may have an influence in regards to the reparation of the offender (Walklate,2007a:114). One may argue, however, that it is fundamental that all victims are recognised first and foremost as have being victimised. Not only is the concept of the ideal victim arguably unfair, but the victimisation it focuses on is disproportionate. To illustrate, the chance of being a victim is :- unevenly distributedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦with poor people from ethnic minorities, especially males, being most likely to be victimised by a stranger and women most likely to be victimised by someone they know (Walklate, 2007a:113). Contestably, the existence of the ideal victim takes away valuable resources, namely general support, which could be used to target and reduce victimisation of those who are victimised more frequently and on a larger scale. This brings the paper onto the concept of victim visibility. What needs to be considered here is the less visible crimes which create the less visible victims (Walklate, 2007a:112). A major example of a less visible crime is corporate crime. It is believed that in the U.K, corporate activity causes over 900 deaths a year, which exceeds the number of people murdered due to interpersonal violence (Whyte,2007a:449). These deaths are as a result of injuries caused by work, poisoning caused by the environment, and food related illnesses (Whyte, 2010:141-143). From this, one can see that corporate crime is a significant social problem, but in practice these incidents are rarely processed or recorded as equivalent to real crimes (Whyte,2010:149). Moreover, if corporate crimes are thought to be largely unreported, a significant number of people who have suffered as a result of these crimes will not be considered as valuable individuals in terms of research, and furthermore they will not get the reparations they deserve. It seems evident that there is an obvious distinction in terms of public and media perception between the victims who carry certain ideal characteristics and the significantly less visible victims. On the whole, the development of victimology as a field of study cannot be considered entirely successful if there exists such major issues with the concept of the victim. Less visible crimes need to become a main focus for victimologists in order to gain more information about the impact of crime on victims of all types of victimisations and, ultimately influence the provision of support for a variety of victims. One could even argue, that verifying the concept of the victim may in itself contribute to solving the issues surrounding the less visible victims and the eradication of the ideal victim. In addition to the problems that arise from the concept of the victim there are several criticisms of the methods used in the development of the study itself. Even without considering the well-known issues of under-reporting and the dark figure of crime, there are problems with methods that are used to gain data, which therefore limit research (Green,2007a:104). To explain, it seems necessary to understand research about victimisations within wider historical, social, ideological and economic conditions, but as victimisation surveys tend to neglect context, there arises a limit to the meaning which can be derived from the surveys (Green, 2007a:104). For example, within a survey a person located on one side of town may reply that they have been the victim of crime in the last six months, and another person may reply the same but on the opposite side of town. It should be essential that these answers are received individually, as being in opposite locations there are bound to be differing contexts of which have influenced the individuals victimisation or the impact they have felt from the victimisation. One could believe that the context is more important that the figures derived from the surveys, as the context may be what deeply affects the victim or increases their chances of victimisation. Therefore, it could appear that victimology has only developed so far, due to the difficult nature of research in this area. Unsurprisingly, there are problems with the Crime Survey for England and Wales, which was formerly the British Crime Survey. Green (2007a) describes several problems with the survey. Firstly, he argues that the survey does not actually tell us about victims and the impact they feel, but the findings from quantifiable, closed questions about victimisation. Secondly, the survey does not attempt to explain trends or attempts to interpret the findings, to explain, as mentioned above it does not appreciate the wider conditions of which victimisations are based. Thirdly, not only are there methodological issues with the survey, due to the entirely positivist nature, there seems to lack are an acknowledgment of its limitations. For example, the survey cannot tell us why some victims are more vulnerable than others but there has been little attempt to rectify this issue. Without acknowledging methodological limitations, one cannot find out what other factors influence the victimisation of di fferent groups and who is immune from victimisation (Green, 2007:105). Another issue to consider is the Crime Survey for England and Wales being limited in its application to under sixteen year olds. As previously stated, children are perceived to be vulnerable and prone to victimisation, but yet this survey seems to disregard children. In contrast, one could argue that children have actually been included in the survey. For instance, in 1992 children aged 12-14 were provided with a self-completion survey about their experiences of crime (Maung, 1995:1). Also, in 2009 children were also included as interviewees (British Crime Survey:2010). One should also highlight that the Crime Survey for England and Wales has data for children which are currently deemed experimental (Economic and Social Data Service: 2010) and so should be considered as a developing source. Arguably, it is not necessarily the Crime Survey for England and Wales that is the problem but how it the survey used (Green, 2007a :106) . To demonstrate, the survey ought to be less about description and more about the impact on the victim. As explored above, if the survey is developing in terms of children as victims, then one could consider that it may be developing and improving generally. In summary, with the main tool in research methods being victimisation surveys, one has to acknowledge the weaknesses of the surveys, but with recognising the necessity of future improvement, one must take into account the possibility of future improvement. In a like manner, a further weakness of the development of victimology is in regards to the weaknesses of Victim Support schemes. Due to the voluntary nature of the schemes, it seems that it is difficult to support a full coverage of crime victims (Corbett Maguire, 1988:31). For example, volunteers of Victim Support can only cover so many victims in a town and can only provide them with a limited amount of resources. Due to the small supply of funding currently provided for Victim Support schemes, payment for a sufficient amount of workers cannot be possible (CorbettMaguire, 1988:31). One could argue that victimologys effect on policy, and its encouragement of a supportive view of victims, has not been fully successful. In order for resources and support for crime victims to improve, one needs the support of the criminal justice system in the focusing of the victim in order to influence the state in providing more compensation for such schemes (CorbettMaguire, 1988:38). In contrast, it could appear that victimologys development has impacted on society enough in that restorative justice is becoming more and more a part of the criminal justice system (Ministry of Justice, 2012). In terms of focus on the victim and their impact from crime, restorative justice implements these considerations significantly. It is true that restorative justice has not been fully implemented in the system as practices thought as most restorative are committed to other processes that are not seen true of fully court-based reparative interventions, for example, mediation (Dignan, 2005:125). Although this is the case, in development there are action plans in place for the restorative justice model (Ministry of Justice, 2012). Therefore on this view, if victimology as a field of study can be considered as an influence on highlighting the importance of the victim, then one can say it has been a successful development as it has contributed to changes in the criminal justice system in favour of the victim. Despite victimologys apparent success in influencing policy in favour of the victim, there exists weaknesses in the theories of which victimology is based upon. Firstly, positivist victimology can be considered to assume the identity of victims as self-evident, without acknowledging the construction of the ideal victim for example (Dignan, 2005:33). Also, positivism concentrates on the scientific nature of victimology, but the perception of what is scientific has become debatable, making the foundations of the theory unstable (Walklate, 2007b:115). Similarly, radical victimology can be considered to be based on the same conception of science as positivist victimology and so suffer from the same weakness (Walklate, 2007b:117). Also, it can be argued that it is limited as it concentrates its analysis of the processes of victimisation on the social classes, whilst ignoring other factors, for example, race, age and gender (Dignan, 2005:34). On the other hand, critical victimology can be seen to highlight the importance of historical and cultural contexts in shaping victimising practices and our feelings towards them, and due to this, critical victimology acknowledges that concepts such as victim and victimisation are contested and not universal (Dignan,2005:35). As discussed previously, the issues with the concept of the victim are almost overwhelming, and so the fact critical victimology at least acknowledges these issues helps bring on a potential process of resolution. Although there are profound issues with positivist and radical victimology, it seems that critical victimology has its strengths which one could argue provides a degree of stability for the field of study of victimology. To summarise, this paper has explained the development of victimology as a field of study, claiming that the development generally occurred through a focus on victims and their centrality in the criminal justice process. The paper went on to consider several weaknesses of victimology itself, arguing that if there exists such major issues with the concept of the victim, the development of victimology as a field of study cannot be considered wholly successful. Secondly, the paper discussed problems surrounding research methods. Although one must acknowledge these problems, it is essential to recognise the possibility of future improvements of such methods. In addition, there are obvious issues with positivist and radical victimology which affect the stability of victimology, nevertheless it seems that critical victimology has its strengths which one could consider to overshadow the weaknesses of the other theories., especially in regards to the recognition of issues surrounding the con cept of the victim. However, most importantly it seems that one cannot say that victimologys development has been completely successful until we see its influence contribute to a fully implemented change in favour of the victim within the criminal justice system. To specify, this would be restorative justice having a more full and firm place in the system, which, for example. could lead to more funds for Victim Support schemes. In conclusion, this paper has explained and evaluated the development of victimology as a field of study, and has argued that the development has not been fully successful. Despite this, the continual development of the study could potentially lead to improvement, and could therefore result in a more successful development of victimology overall.

Report on Case Study: Walmart Japan Essay

Question 1: How would you characterize Wal-Mart’s approach to global management? The trademark of Wal-Mart’s global management approach focuses on 3 main strategies: low price, best value, large selection of goods & high quality service. Being the world’s largest retailer, Wal-Mart will enter the international market by providing a wide variety of products at a lower price than its domestic competitors. In addition, one of the common strategies of Wal-Mart is to partner or acquire a local supermarket retailer who has already had a good knowledge of the market in order to save time & money. Wal-Mart is also famous for its great use of distributor network. They pay a lot of attention to choosing a good location when expanding their business, a strategy which has been proven successful in its original US market. Question 2: Do you agree with Wal-Mart’s entry strategy in Japan? What are some of the inherent risks? Do you think that a faster market entry would be more effective? In my opinion, Wal-Mart’s entry strategy in Japan (slow-and-steady) is quite appropriate with Japanese retail environment and economic situation. However, there are many challenges need to be overcome in this potential market: 1. Socio-cultural Differences: In Japan, consumers often equate bad quality with low price. Changing consumer perceptions is not easy or cheap. In addition, Japanese customers demand a quick entry and exit from the stores which makes cutting costs by eliminating staffs from the retail process unadvisable. 2. Fierce Competition: It is unavoidable that there are many strong domestic rivals in a highly potential retail market like Japan. 3. Distribution System: Traditionally, Japan’s multilayered distribution networks have notoriously made selling merchandise more expensive for retailers. Wal-Mart’s desire to remove middle man and wholesalers from this network is quite challenging. These above obstacles bring about unfavorable risks to Wal-Mart and it requires time to deliberate and make the right decision in grasping the cultural quirks. The bit-by-bit approach has proved its rightness in entering a wholly new market in case of Wal-Mart. Thereupon, a faster market entry wouldn’t be more effective but might be a path to another failure of Wal-Mart. Question 3: In your opinion, what is the single most important  thing Wal-Mart can do to ensure success in Japan? Explain. In our opinion, the single most important thing Wal-Mart can do to ensure success in Japan is to streamlining its supply chain, or to skip the middleman in other word, then it should be able to pass lower costs along to the custo mer. Therefore, Wal-Mart would have a huge advantage over its local competitors in its ability to price low. Moreover, the Japanese market appears to be ready for value chains. Wal-Mart is confident it can make significant inroads in Japan under its low-price model, but the challenge will lie in its ability to convince Japanese consumers that its everyday low prices don’t translate into poor product quality. Fortunately, Japanese customers are becoming more value conscious, there arises a huge opportunities for discount retailers to capitalize on changing cultural conditions. Entry strategy of Wal-mart in Japan: slow and steady. It had learned from past mistakes and knew that getting to market faster didn’t necessarily equate to being better. For example, in Germany, where retail regulations and swift price competition are both fierce, Wal-Mart reacted before it inventory systems were in place, and the result was substantial operating losses. Driving the strategy is the installation of Wal-Mart’s Retail Link operation, a JIT inventory replenishment system shared between retailer and supplier, effectively eliminating the wholesaler and speeding up payables and receivables collections. Wal-Mart believed Seiyu was the partner best suited for its entry strategy because by working through a local partner, Wal-Mart believed it could better wade through Japan’s long and costly network of suppliers, which has long frustrated many other foreign investor. Since only the biggest Japanese retailers have the leverage with manufactures, partnering with an existing market leader should prove invaluable when attempting to negotiate direct deals. Moreover, Wal-Mart avoids having to build stores and can take advantage of Seiyu’s well-recognized brand. Question 4: Do you think Wal-Mart is doing enough cross-cultural training with its Seiyu employees? What are the greatest challenges Wal-Mart faces in relating to its Japanese employees? In our opinion, in such a different market like Japan compare to the US’s, Wal-Mart is doing enough cross cultural training with its Seiyu employees, but will take time to make employees to adapt changes. First, to reinforce the importance of selling correctly, Wal-Mart has put store managers through weeklong training sessions and has  flown hundreds of Seiyu workers to company headquarter in Arkansas. This hopefully can be successful in training Wal-Mart Japan’s employees to learn global management and selling style which meet the world standard according to Seiyu’s CEO said. Nevertheless, according to the case, Wal-Mart arranged just a few cultural training classes to teach the employees to be more outspoken, upbeat and goal-oriented while encouraging employees continually praising co-workers. Apparently, Wal-Mart somehow is not applying a right strategy. Japan is a country where people highly appreciate humbleness. Therefore, appraising co-workers is considered as an inappropriate action which cannot be easily accepted by large number of employees. As a consequence, this might cause difficulties especially for trainee to adapt a new perception within a short term. The greatest challenges Wal-Mart is facing regardless of its Japanese employees should be the culture differences, they have to find out how to deal with the resistance to change of workers. The second problem is maintaining the budget for retraining staff, sending them to foreign environment to learn new management methods to increase sales of Japan Wal-Mart Stores, which may take long time. Question 5: How can Wal-Mart respond to some of the negative impressions of its employment practices in the United States so that these perspectives do not follow it as it expands internationally? With the problem of sex-discrimination lawsuit in 2001, Wal-Mart has fought to class action decision as recently as early 2007. However, its attempts have been unsuccessful. Besides, in order to counter the negative publicity of the discrimination lawsuit, Wal-Mart also opened a diversity office in November 2003, enhancing their claim that: â€Å"Wal-Mart is a wonderful place for women and minorities to work and isolated complaints do not change this fact† Despite the complaint of lowing workers’ standard of living that lead to the negative impact on Wal-Mart’s image, the company has little trouble keeping its shoppers with low prices or attracting workers with the promise of a career in a fast-growing company. Nevertheless, Wal-Mart offers a very promising promoting op portunity to each of its staff. At Wal-Mart, anyone, without a high school degree start as a cart pusher in the parking lot can end up being a store manager, district manager or a regional vice-president. Those reactions ensure a future for Wal-Mart as the biggest private retail employer in the world.

A Study of Factors Contributing to the Lack of Success and Participation of African American in Males in Advance Placement Classes

Abstract The purpose of this research brief is to offer a brief review of those factors that contribute to the academic achievement gap between African American males. A sample of 25 8th grade, African American, male students from Dent Middle School will be identifyied as participates for the research. Although there has been research written about the achievement gap between African American and their counterparts, the literature is limited regarding strategies tailored specifically to address the achievement gap between African American males.Participant’s data will be collected in relation to sex, race, age group, and attending school. Subjects will responded to an unobtrusive open-ended survey instrument. A survey consisting of 10 qualitative questions and will be used to developed for analysis. Introduction Studies have found that the level of the success of African American male students in advanced educational program is lower rates than nonblack peers (Few, 2004).Succe ss in early exposure to advance classes has shown that it ultimately impacts students’ pre college experiences, such as career choice, level of success, and the nature of participation extracurricular activities (Williams, 2011). Very few black males take advanced classes, which are more in line with college entrance requirements (Few, 2004). Instead, they stick to classes that meet basic high school graduation requirements (Few, 2004). Poverty is another barrier that blocks African American male from participation in the AP program.Most schools require a fee for taking an exam in each subject area (Williams, 2011). AP courses are not as accessible for minorities as for White students because many low-income schools (often primarily populated by minority students) do not offer any AP classes (Watts Silvernail, 2010). With most African American families living well below the nation poverty rate paying addition school fees is unrealistic (Cross, 2006). Further, the lack of expo sure to participating in advance placement class is also an issue that arises with African American males (Watts Silvernail, 2010).Influenced for many years by widespread opinion that they have substandard academic abilities, African American male students in many instances do not consider enrolling in the AP program (Williams, 2011). Consequently, when African American males are not being identified as being academically high achieving and they receive tremendous peer pressure not to achieve, it is no surprise that few African American young males are in honors or advanced placement courses (Cross, 2006).Despite these data, research is still necessary to understand why African American male student demonstrate lack of success and participation in advance courses. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to examine the possible factors that contribute to the lack success and participation of African American males in advance placement classes by asking the following questio ns: 1. Are African American males encouraged to participate in advance placement classes? . What types of support in being offered to enhance participation for African American Males? 3. What influences are hindering participation in advance placement for African American males? Researchers have attempted to clarify the factors the contribute to the lack of success and participation of African American in males in advance placement classes, most of the discussion focuses on fundamentals such as poverty, discrimination, and availability.While there has been much written on the African American in males in advance placement classes, there are questions and problems that are fully or partially disclosed in the works of known scholars. Although there have been significant gains in the educational endeavors of African American students, the 1990s saw a reduction in the progress made with a significant widening of the achievement gap between African American and Caucasian students(Few, 20 04). According to the Education Trust, (2003), the black-white gaps are about 10 points wider than they were more than a decade ago .In addition to gaps in performance on achievement tests, gaps are found in grades, course selection, advanced placement (AP) course participation and test taking, high school graduation, and dropout rates (Legler, 2004). Theodore Cross was dedicated to the conscientious investigation of the status and prospects for African American males in higher education. In the journal article published in The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education Cross addresses educational limitation for African American males in regards to advance placement.While his research did reveal and address the fundamentals of the lack of participation in advance classes for African American males the article lacked objectivity. The focus of the article was centered on the racial scoring gap of advance placement and examined the significance of the interracial disparities between African American male. While is this a key component Jenel Few author of â€Å"The Odds are Against them: The Black Male Education Debacle† takes a stand on the lack of preparation is the leading factor that hinders African American males from partaking in advance classes.She discusses the teacher’s lack of preparation to education children from different social standing and educational standing as well. African American males tend to be underrepresented in advanced and honors courses and more likely to be placed in special education programs and suspended or expelled from school (Few, 2004). The article describes a singularity known as the stereotype threat, which impacts the way teachers view students and the way students view themselves.Stereotype threat influenced teachers’ low-achievement expectations for poor and minority students (Few, 2004). Watts Silvernail, (2010) An Examination of the Barriers and Supports to African-American Enrollment in Honors and Advance d Placement Courses doctoral dissertation examined the impact of teacher effectiveness on the learning of different types of students, from low to high achievers, illustrated the importance of quality teachers. In her studies she found that teacher’s quality has a â€Å"huge effect on how well students fare in school† (abstract).Silvernail discusses that there are many externally and internally generated factors that can influence African American male students' academic decisions to participate in AP classes. External factors include inaccessibility, socioeconomic status, and systemic barriers. Internal factors include cultural identity conflicts, learning style differences, and social isolation (abstract). Silvernail research determined that educational programs that promote equal access to higher education for traditionally underserved populations do exist among African American male.Her qualitative approach was used with the intention of using authentic voices Afri can American student voices to look for commonalities and differences between those students who choose the rigorous advanced track and those who do not (Silvernail, 2010). Method In this research study, The Factors Contributing to the Lack of Success and Participation of African American in Males in Advance Placement Classes will be examined. A qualitative method was chosen because it will offer a more purposeful sampling.The strength of qualitative research is its ability to provide complex textual descriptions of how people experience a given research issue (Robert, 1999). The main purpose of choosing qualitative method is the advantage of qualitative research is to provide a richer deeper understanding of a problem or question being observed. Qualitative methods are also effective in identifying intangible factors, such as social norms, socioeconomic status, gender roles, ethnicity (Robert, 1999). Each participant personified three characteristics: Black male, a student, and a v olunteer.Participants The participants of this study will include 40 African American male students in the grade to 8th grade at Dent Middle School in Columbia South Carolina who have reported not being successful or participating in advance placement classes. I chose Dent Middle School because of it diversity with students and teachers. In order to conduct a survey with students a paternal consent form was required do to the participants being under the age of 18 years of age. Survey Instrument Participants in this study will complete an survey that consists of 25 questions. see Appendix A) The survey was developed to collect data that will be used to analyze the reasoning behind the lack of success of African American males in advance placement classes. References Cross, T. (2006). There is both good news and bad news in Black participation in advanced placement programs. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 50, 97-101. Retrieved from http://www. jbhe. com/features/59_apscor inggap. html Education Trust. (2003). African American achievement in America. Retrieved April 5, 2012 from http://www2. edtrust. org/NR/rdonlyres/ 9AB4AC88-7301-43FF-81A3 EB94807B917F/0/AfAmer_Achivement. df Few, J. (2004). The odds are against them: The black male education debacle. The Black Commentator, 89, Retrieved from http://www. blackcommentator. com/89/89_reprint_education. html Legler, R. (2004). Perspectives on the gaps: Fostering the academic success of minority and low-income students. Naperville, IL: Learning Point Associates. http://books. google. com/books/about/Perspectives_on_the_gaps. html? id=lM_zGwAACAAJ Robert , P. (1999). Qualitative methods: what are they and why use them?. Health Services Research, 34, 1101–1118. Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. ov/pmc/articles/PMC1089055/ Watts Silvernail, L. (2010). An examination of the barriers and supports to african-american enrollment in honors and advanced placement courses. (Doctoral dissertation, University of South Carolina)Retrieved from http://www. grin. com/en/doc/237000/an-examination-of-the-barriers-and-supports-to-african-american-enrollment Williams, R. (2011). More blacks are competing in advanced placement programs, but the racial scoring gap is widening. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 13, 23-36. Retrieved from http://www. jbhe. com/features/59_apscoringgap. html

Computers in the 1950s - 1478 Words

Computers in the 1950 s People have been in awe of computers since they were first invented. At first scientist said that computers would only be for government usage only. Then when the scientists saw the potential computers had, scientist then predicted that by 1990 computers may one day invade the home of just about ever citizen in the world (History Internet), the scientists were slightly wrong, because by 1990 computers were just beginning to catch on. Then a few years later when scientists when to major corporations to get help with a special project, the corporations said no, because computers would just be a fad and they wouldn t make much money off of it. By definition Abacus is the first computer (the proper definition†¦show more content†¦Programmers, decided to make a command in assemblers called sub routines (s Appendix b), this enabled them to continue using computers at the same constant speed rather than loose the speed for a better program. Conditional control transfers allowed Ali 4 programmers to be able to step and start from anywhere into the program (Computers Internet). By letting this happen programmers were giving major lee way in their programs and letting people be capable of entering commands stopping the program go eat lunch and then start it right back up again, this lead the way for many operating systems. C programming was in the experimental stages just about nonexsistant in the 1950 s. While it was not in practical use, it was in fundamental use, because of its need scientists and programmers sought to create it so as they could make programming easier to do (Hackers Internet). One of the most important uses a computer can have is for air navigation, be it airplanes. Some of the other uses consisted of, weather studies, trajectories, night time maneuvers, navigation of ships and planes, radar, and sonar (History Internet). They were used in mission control tower so as the planes knew where to land, they told the exact path that would be nessicary to take for a safe and fast flight. They told how many planes were in the air so as there would not be any collisions. The navy hadShow MoreRelatedAutomobiles Then and Now Essay1005 Words   |  5 PagesAutomobiles Then and Now The automobile has become an important part in our nations economy. In fact such an important part that is has called for many changes through out its history. One of the main changes is the body. In the 1950s the body was made mostly of steel. This was okay if you like bulky, heavy, gas guzzling cars. The main reason why steel was so widely used is that the steel industry was so huge and steel was so cheep that it was the logical thing to use. However with allRead MoreThe 1950s: A Deacde of Progress and Change in America Essay1017 Words   |  5 Pageswhen the war ended. The 1940’s ended and it was time for a new decade. The 1950’s were looked as a state of mind or a way of living instead of another time in American history. The 1950’s were the most influential decade in American history because the civil rights act began, fashion was completely new and trendy there were more much advancement in entertainment and medicine, and suburban life was much more fu nctional than any other decade in America. The 1950’s were a great time and one mainRead MoreThe Death Of The Family1418 Words   |  6 PagesDeath of the Family America has made great progress on the world stage with her technology. The inventions of the computer, cell phones, and internet have become a crucial part of life for many around the world. With all the technology, America, has been unable to stop the murder of her families. Hundreds of families each day are being murdered by the very technology that was invented to make life better. Not all the murders have been carried out directly by the technology itself. Some families haveRead MoreArtifacts in Computer Science840 Words   |  3 PagesComputers are what run society today, everywhere we look we see devices that are run off of computers and microcomputers such as phones, computers, tablets, and even vehicles. It is now the way the world communicates with each other, because of computers it is a much smaller world in which we live. Computers have been around for such a short period of time, yet they seem to be advancing faster than anything else; this is because there is an infin ite number of ways computers can be implemented toRead MoreThe Storage Program Concept Or Stored Program Architecture959 Words   |  4 Pagesbecause it is the milestone in general purpose electronic computer development (Sharma, 2015). To elaborate, the stored program concept provides two beneficial functions that modified the design of computers. First, computers would have the ability to signal and store programs and data in the same ROM or RAM (Sharma, 2015). By viewing programs as data and vice versa, the stored program concept simplifies the hardware and the software of computers. This would suggest that programs are represented by machineRead MoreComputers in the World of Healthcare1259 Words   |  6 Pagestransferring their paper documents on to a computer to narrow down too much paper work. Although there were some complications in regards to putting everything on the computer. Some paper work was either not put on the computer or lost in the confusion. Now days the only time when hospital uses paper is when the computers are down. In this paper, I will show you the world of healthcare all the way from history to future telesurgery. The uses of computers in healthcare include education, diagnosticRead MoreA Report On Samsung Engineering And Construction1126 Words   |  5 Pagesthen expanded into sugar and then wool. And by the late 1950’s the company had moved to insurance security and retail. In the late 1960’s Samsung moved to electronics, and the first ever product produced by Samsung electronics was a 12 inch black and white television in 1970 (Referenceforbusiness.com, 2016). By 1983 the first Samsung computer had arrived (News.samsung.com, 2016). This computer was way ahead than Microsoft computers. In the 90’s Samsung began to rise as an international force in manyRead MoreThe Role Of Military Alliances On Society And The Economy Of Technological Developments Since 1945931 Words   |  4 Pagesthe idea that TV took pe ople s mind off of things, this gave them a rest from the world. b) Richard used TV to get people to get off of his back because he could reach such a wide audience. 2. a) Transistor was a peice used for a computer. The integrated circuit was a bunch of transistors put together to make a computer. A vaccine was created, which is helping your immune system fight diseases by injecting a weaker one. b) The importance of the creation of computers much like cars just put themRead More1950s Happy Days Essay1157 Words   |  5 Pages5-1-12 The 1950’s (Happy Days) The 1950’s were called the â€Å"Happy Days† for multiple reasons. We were finished with a huge war, and our economy was booming. Social, political and economic policies were popping up everywhere. Many things define why the 1950’s were the â€Å"Happy Days† in the U.S. Whether it was the end of the Korean War for the U.S. or the economic boom that helped define what we call the â€Å"American Dream† the 1950’s were great times for America. During the 1950’ many public andRead MoreThe Definition And History Of Cloud Computing Essay1644 Words   |  7 PagesABSTRACT This paper explores the definition and history of cloud computing. Cloud computing began in the 1950’s with a theory known as time sharing. This allowed for the sharing of computers so that consumers could get the benefits without the costly expenses that came with it (Pullen, 2015). Over the years this concept has evolved into the current definition of cloud computing, which is basically using the Internet for computing resources and applications so that they do not need to do it in-house

Woodchucks Poem Essay - 652 Words

â€Å"Eliminating the Pest† In the poem â€Å"Woodchucks† by Maxine Kumin, the speaker is in her garden and is annoyed with some woodchucks that are eating and destroying the produce in the garden. The speaker in turn tries to remove the woodchucks by using humane gas to kill them and when that is unsuccessful, she resorts to more violent means. This poem uses the annoying woodchucks to signify the Jewish people during the Holocaust by the Nazi Party. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;In the first stanza of the poem, the speaker clearly identifies that some woodchucks are annoying her. To solve this problem, the speaker uses gas as a way to eliminate the pests quickly and painlessly much like the Nazis tried to eradicate the Jews from their presence.†¦show more content†¦The poor innocent woodchuck falls to its death in the beautiful roses below. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The second and third stanzas bring out the true violence in the speaker. She claims that she is a peaceful person but has been driven to violence. Thus natural selection is responsible for the woodchuck’s death, not her. This is just like the Nazis killing the Jewish people during the Holocaust. The Nazis saw the Jews as an inferior race that irritated them. The Nazis then took natural selection into their own hands and exterminating all the Jews. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;In the fourth stanza, the speaker’s killing instinct has taken over her body. She shows no pity towards the woodchucks as she takes the mother woodchuck and shoots her, watching it fall to its helpless death. She then takes another baby woodchuck, looking in its eyes, and kills it. She continues to kill the rest like a trained assassin, or psycho killer driven by pure frustration. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The speaker’s actions are like that of the Nazis towards the Jews. The Jews began to revolt against the gas chambers, infuriating the Nazis. In return, the Nazis lower themselves to lower, more cold-hearted techniques used to extinguish the Jews, who they see as a nuisance. They began to break apart families, torture prisoners and kill some Jews face to face. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;In the fifth and final stanza the speaker talks about trying to kill the old clever woodchuckShow MoreRelatedCompare/Contrast Traveling Through the Dark and Woodchucks1161 Words   |  5 PagesCompare and Contrast Essay In the poems â€Å"Traveling Through the Dark† and â€Å"Woodchucks† man must make a decision about nature in the most inconvenient ways. In â€Å"Traveling Through the Dark† the narrator is faced with, literally, a life or death situation, whereas in â€Å"Woodchucks† the narrator is faced under the Darwinian belief about killing. Both poems reveal the interpersonal relationship between man and animal as well as the moral dilemma that man faces with nature. However, through the use of narrationRead MoreThe Relationship between Man and Nature in Emerson and Thoreau Part 51007 Words   |  5 Pages Compare and contrast the relationship between man and nature in Emerson and Thoreau? Ralph Waldo Emerson was born on May 25th, 1803 and died on April 1882. He was a poet, lecturer and essay writer. Slowly he started to disbelieve in his religion and social believes and started to study philosophy like Plato (Transcendental, nature). Keeping in mind his philosophy studies he gave a speech on â€Å"The American scholar† in 1837. Only during 1932 â€Å"The American Scholar† became the most popular magazineRead MoreHenry David Thoreau And Ben Franklin994 Words   |  4 PagesFinal Essay Ages ago, spanning from when the Greeks ruled and well into the time when the Colonists first came to America, reading was a skill only the wealthy and the very lucky had the privilege to learn. In those times reading wasn’t necessary to work and to be successful. However, now in this modern era, reading has become necessary for everyday life; it has become vital to a society that is ever more dependent on technology. Nevertheless, reading is beneficial in ways that listening and watchingRead MoreThe Dark Side of Robert Frost’s Nature Essay2339 Words   |  10 Pagesfor his poems about nature, he writes about trees, flowers, and animals. This is a common misconception, Robert Frost is more than someone who writes a happy poem about nature. The elements of nature he uses are symbolic of something more, something darker, and something that needs close attention to be discovered. Flowers might not always represent beauty in Robert Frost’s poetry. Symbolism is prese nt in every line of the nature’s poet’s poems. The everyday objects present in his poems provide theRead MoreHenry David Thoreau4404 Words   |  18 Pagesman of many talents who worked hard to shape his craft and his life. He is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay, Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Henrys books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry total over 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions were his writings on natural history and philosophy, where he anticipated the methods and findings

The Invention Of The Printing Press - 1633 Words

Historian David Ramsay stated, In establishing American independence†¦ the pen and the press had merit equal to that of the sword (Slaughter 9). When historians analyze the past they often use primary sources such as printed media, journals, letters and various notarized documents. Printed documents are a timeless form of communication with an immeasurable influenced, capable of reaching masses. How has print evolve into this powerful tool of influence and communication in America? To answer the question we must look to Europe and trace the origins of the technology that revolutionized printed materials, the Printing Press. Johannes Gutenberge in Mainz, Germany created the printing press between 1446 and 1450 (Dittmar 1133). The technology spread throughout Europe and eventually made its way into the Americas (Dittmar 1133). The invention of the printing press revolutionized the literature, education, and governments, and colonial America (Dittmar 1133). It has increased product ion efficiency and lowered the price of books between the years1450 and 1500 (Dittmar 1133). Historian Jeremiah E. Dittmar discovered that printing better-benefited port cities like Boston (Dittmar 1135). The printing press changed the way ideas are publicized improved the quality, efficiency writing (Dittmar 1134). Some historians have deemed the printing press as one of the greatest technological emergences to come between 1400-1800 (Dittmar 1133). The first printing press used in colonialShow MoreRelatedThe Invention Of The Printing Press948 Words   |  4 PagesIf we examine, by quantifiable evaluations focusing on printing production and the distribution of associated technology and scrutinized by the characterization of the extensive expanse of knowledge and ideas across Europe we will discover the invention of the printing press. A result of progress, among a number of allied industries, papermaking and goldsmithing were principal players. The thin paper-like material made from the pith of the papyrus plant was one of the most common writing papers duringRead MoreThe Invention Of The Printing Press1413 Words   |  6 Pages The printing press was essentially invented by Johannes Gutenberg enabling mass productions of books and the spread of rapid knowledge throughout Europe. This invention became a great industry in Britain. The printing press became a popular industry in the mid-19th century as the second industrial revolution commenced a communication revolution. There were several factors that made printing press very popular and substantial such as during wars where there was more of an urgency to strive for newsRead MoreThe Invention Of Printing Press1284 Words   |  6 Pagesimportant machines during the modern period: the printing press. The printing press was inspired by earlier uses found in China and Japan as early as the 7th century. In this time the way to print was using the method of block printing, whi ch was a piece of wood used to print a specific piece of text. (â€Å"Patterns for†) With the Gutenberg invention the revolution had begun. It advanced the process of movable type further, and started a new era of printing called typography. The typography allowed informationRead MoreThe Invention Of The Printing Press861 Words   |  4 PagesThe printing press invented by German goldsmith Johann Gutenberg in 1448 has been called one of the most important inventions in the history of humankind. When compared to the standard printing methods of the day, the printing press revolutionized how mass quantities of books were printed. The enlightenment in Europe and America were greatly affected by its invention. From its beginnings in 1448 the printer has evolved into today s modern laser jet printers. One printer that most people don t thinkRead MoreThe Invention Of The Printing Press1525 Words   |  7 PagesThe invention of the printing press was a great influence on Renaissance culture and literature. Its inventor, Johannes Gutenberg said himself â€Å"like a star it shall scatter the darkness of ignorance and cause a light herefore unknown to shine amongst men† (Gutenberg, n.d.). By creating the market for the printed word, he paved the way for literature in the Renaissance. Gutenberg’s printing press single-handedly revolutionized the way stories were shared. He took the power of the word away fromRead MoreThe Invention Of The Printing Press932 Words   |  4 PagesThe printing press, a simple invention compared to the technology we have today, however, it was a huge stepping stone to getting to the technology today. The printing press represents the spread of information and knowledge. There were two major effects of the printing press. These two effects were the exploration of the Americas and the Protestant Reformation. Exploration was Colombus and his explorers â€Å"discovering† America. The printing press had great influence on these events. The ProtestantRead MoreThe Invention Of Printing Press3662 Words   |à ‚  15 Pages Invention of printing press has brought benefits to the world. However, it had a different meaning to an individual; for someone, it became the source to spread their ideas, and for others, a source for collecting new ideas. Menocchio is a peasant farmer born in the 16th century in Italy. He was a peasant farmer who had some reading skills. He was a miller who owned his mill, so he managed to make a little extra to spend money on printed books. Based on his reading, he developed an idea thatRead MoreThe Invention Of The Printing Press1214 Words   |  5 PagesYou can t stop people from printing what they want to print. -Alan Sugar The Printing Press, a 15th century invention, allowed scholars to print and distribute their work throughout Europe. Church authority denounced the spread of scientific ideas encouraged by the invention of the printing press. They banned scientific works, like Galileo’s Sidereus Nuncius, as academics published their research. Roman Catholic Church authority advocated for biblical ideas, which opposed scientific studies likeRead MoreGutenberg Invention Of The Printing Press1366 Words   |  6 Pageswas one invention that really made an impact? Some say electricity or medication some might even say technology. One invention that altered the world was Gutenberg’s invention the printing press. The printing press has made a huge impact back in the 1450s. It allowed many nations to go from writing in scripts to books. Also it was an other way for information to be shared with surrounding countries. The printing press expanded communication,knowledge and also exploration. Th e printing press help withRead MoreThe Invention Of Printing Press1345 Words   |  6 PagesSince the beginning of typography people were always looking to create it in a faster more effective way. The printing press was then created to do just that, it made it possible to mass produce designs and newspapers with a lot text. But during that time there weren t that many styles of typefaces and since then the typefaces have changed, kind of. The typefaces used when they were press was first made are still used today. Are hand crafted fonts more successful than the sans serif modern typefaces

Journalism From China with Love Graduate Admis Essay Example For Students

Journalism From China with Love Graduate Admis Essay Journalism From China with Love Graduate Admissions Essays Journalism From China with Love The purpose behind this personal statement is to not only gain admission to your well-established and highly respected Masters program, but to impress upon you my passion for learning and my tremendous desire to succeed in the field of journalism. I have based my decision to pursue an academic career not on purely practical reasons, but rather on my own natural interests and aptitude. My personal philosophy is that the biggest loss that a person can suffer is the loss of ones enthusiasm. Without enthusiasm, life becomes monotonous and boring. My enthusiasm for continuous, life-long learning particularly in the field of print journalism makes me a model candidate for your Masters program. Many applicants may claim to be from an underprivileged family, but I freely admit that I was born into a middle class family. My parents are both ordinary citizens that worked for railway companies in China. Through the influences of both my father and my mother, I fell in love with reading at an early age. My mother taught me to read (in Chinese of course) when I was only four years old. This knowledge was the key to the entrance of entire new worlds that I never could have even imagined before I learned to read. By the time that I had entered primary school, I had already finished one of the four classic works of ancient Chinese literature The Three Kingdoms. Although this was a difficult work of literature for such a young age, I was determined and persistent enough to not only finish the book but to understand and appreciate its deeper meanings. My parents had given me the best gift that a parent can give the love of reading. My thirst for reading was nearly unquenchable. Fortunately, my family realized the importance of my desire to read and was able to afford all of my book purchasing requests. My love for reading continued throughout my primary school years. Following primary school, I earned the opportunity to study at Changsha Yali High School, which was founded by fellows from Yale University of the United States in 1906. This particular high school emphasized an English education by providing oral English classes for seventh through twelfth graders and was taught by Yale undergraduate university students. This relatively early exposure to the English language ignited another fire in me, that being the desire to master the English language. I learned as much as I possibly could about the English language during these six years. I became determined to learn even more and vowed to never stop learning as I came to realize that one never really masters any language, including our native tongue. After high school I was accepted into Central South University in China. Unfortunately, this university lacked a program in journalism, so I chose the most closely related subject to journalism, and therefore majored in English. My favorite classes were those that were affiliated with writing and the media. I did well in class study of video, which featured critiques and discussion of English movies. Oral English classes continued to be among my favorites, where I could not only improve my own English language ability by speaking but also by listening to others in the class. Another class that I particularly enjoyed was called Images of British and American Culture and Society, which gave me a tremendous insight into the contrasts of British and American cultures and that of my native China. My English writing class gave me the chance to transfer my thoughts to paper in a meaningful and useful manner. The ability to express ones thoughts in two different languages and to have people actually understand these thoughts became fascinating to me. .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399 , .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399 .postImageUrl , .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399 , .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399:hover , .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399:visited , .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399:active { border:0!important; } .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399:active , .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399 .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u3f8129718d5baa6c0038bfef960f5399:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: F. Scott Fitzgerald's novels provide an unparalleled insight into the breed of rich Americans who lived during post-WWI EssayThrough these university courses, I became more exposed to Western culture. The desire to analyze and compare Western and Chinese culture through writing became a driving force inside me. I became absorbed in reading English newspapers and inquisitive about other English language media. I read the China Daily and 21st Century English language newspapers as well as Readers Digest and Time .